TO HELP THE TRUTH PREVAIL
by John M. Cowan

Speechwriting expert Dr. Terry Tarver
explains what ancient orators can teach
modern-day speakers

      What better place to look for.. than in the words and writings of the first great orators? In a workshop session at the 1993 Conference for Speechwriters, speechwriting expert Dr. Terry Tarver explored what the ancient Greek orators like Demosthenes and Cicero can teach modern-day speechwriters.
      The art of rhetoric began with a Greek named Corax, who coached citizens on how to argue court cases. "Corax observed that the person with the most evidence didn't always win the argument," said Tarver. Corax developed a style of rhetoric based on probabilities: What is most likely to have happened?
      This approach suggests that the "facts" of the case are more ornamental than indispensable. The philosopher Aristotle held that facts constitute inferior, "inartistic" proof. Tarver cited that famous trial surrounding the assault on truck driver Reginald Denny of Los Angeles: "I saw the video, you saw the video -- a fellow picked up a large brick and hit Denny on the head with it." Yet the jury did not convict the defendants of attempted murder. "The evidence did not persuade them," Tarver said.
      One argument: The defendants hit Denny only once, although they had time to strike him many times before the police arrived if they had really intended to kill him. "That is one of the first and most important lessons that we need to learn from the classical rhetoricians," said Tarver. "The facts don't count as much as what you do with the facts."
      If facts are "inartistic," what tools of argument are preferable? "First of all, logic," said Tarver. Aristotle, discussing logic and rhetoric, pointed out that syllogisms (deductive reasoning) must rest on premises which seem true to intelligent people. Tarver offered one syllogism as an example: King George must be obeyed; I am a King George; therefore I must be obeyed. "That is perfectly logical syllogism," said Tarver, "but it doesn't start from something which seems true."
      Second, an appeal to emotion. "Feelings are often way more important, then and now, than just logic," Tarver said. If you rely on simply laying out the facts when a crisis strikes, you and your organization may find yourselves at a disadvantage against the critics with emotion-loaded arguments.
      Third, the character of the speaker. "That's a powerful force, there's no question about it," Tarver noted, although the speechwriter doesn't control the speaker's reputation -- and speakers with good reputations don't rest on them.
      From a more philosophical perspective, Tarver ticked off the uses Aristotle laid out for rhetoric:

• TO HELP THE TRUTH PREVAIL: "There is absolutely no reason for us to win in an argument just because it's the truth," said Tarver. "Do you ever work for speakers who believe that just because we're right, we ought to win?"
• TO TEACH: While technical experts may understand the intricate details of their work, "you need somebody who can come in and use rhetoric to explain them to the public."
• TO SEE BOTH SIDES OF AN ISSUE: "If you have learned how to put an argument together, you have learned how to tear an argument apart."
• TO DEFEND YOURSELF: When your organization is under attack, somebody else gets to frame the debate, choose the battleground, decide when and where to fight. High school and college debating courses teach speakers how to quickly prepare a counterattack.

      Tarver pointed out that something in human nature seems to make us "people in need of argument." We want reasons to support our beliefs and actions. The attention paid to "somebody like Rush Limbaugh, I submit to you, has tapped into the fact that people want to hear the arguments."
      The trappings of oratory may be changing, but speechwriters and speakers may yet breathe life into the ancient tradition of rhetoric.

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